Las enfermedades ¿son solo padecimientos?: biomedicina, formas de atención "paralelas" y proyectos de poder / Is disease merely illness?: Biomedicine, "parallel" forms of care and power

Partiendo de la propuesta de Giovanni Berlinguer, de que los procesos de salud/enfermedad constituyen algunos de los principales espías de las contradicciones de un sistema, se describen en primer lugar algunos casos ocurridos en contextos capitalistas centrales y periféricos, así como en Estados denominados "socialistas reales", que permiten observar dicho papel. En segundo lugar, observamos los procesos y sobre todo las interpretaciones que se han desarrollado en América Latina y especialmente en México respecto del papel atribuido a la medicina tradicional en la identidad y pertenencia de los pueblos originarios, y que subrayan la incompatibilidad de las cosmovisiones indígenas con la biomedicina, analizando algunos proyectos que se impulsaron en términos de salud intercultural, y que concluyeron en su mayoría en fracasos, tanto desde el punto de vista de la salud, como político. Se subraya el contenido y la perspectiva casi exclusivamente ideológicos de dichos proyectos, y su poca relación con la realidad de los pueblos originarios. Por último, se trata de ver si la trayectoria de estas concepciones y programas de salud expresan y explican el notable repliegue que sufren desde hace casi diez años la mayoría de los movimientos étnicos en América Latina.

Following Giovanni Berlinguer's proposal that health/disease processes are one of the primary spies into the contradictions of a system, this article describes cases that occurred in central and peripheral capitalist contexts as well as in the so-called "real socialist" States that allow such a role to be seen. Secondly, we observe the processes and above all the interpretations developed in Latin America and especially Mexico regarding the role attributed to traditional medicine in the identity and sense of belonging of indigenous peoples, which emphasize the incompatibility of indigenous worldviews with biomedicine. To do so we analyze projects that were carried out under the notion of intercultural health, which in large part resulted in failure both in health and political terms. The almost entirely ideological content and perspective of these projects is highlighted, as is the scant relationship they hold with the reality of indigenous people. Lastly, the impact and role that the advance of these conceptualizations and health programs might have had in the disengagement experienced over the last nearly ten years in the ethnic movements of Latin America is considered.

Selection of perching site background color by Hamadryas feronia (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in Costa Rica: Implications for industrial melanism

Observations of the increased frequency of melanic forms in moths of the genus Biston in Great Britain after the industrial revolution lead to the development of the theory of industrial Melanism. Nonetheless, arguments against that interpretation of the experimental evidence have polarized acceptance of the concept. New evidence based on diurnal butterflies is more credible because it involves behavior that can be seen in action, during daylight, and because the natural history of the selected species is well known. An experiment was carried out in which three substrate colors (white, black, and gray) were employed to test the landing preferences of Hamadryas feronia. A marked preference was observed for landing on white and gray, and a chi-square (N=644 tests) showed evidence of a preference by males to land on white, and for females to land on gray. Black was rejected perhaps because it provides very little background matching with the butterfly’s colors. The butterfly habit of perching selectively on particular color substrates is a genetically fixed behavior, where the males possibly choose white as a tactic to be noticed by females and attract them, whereas females prefer gray to enhance crypsis and avoid attracting predators.

Observaciones en el incremento de la frecuencia de las formas melánicas de la polilla Biston de Gran Bretaña después de la revolución industrial, llevó al desarrollo de la teoría del melanismo industrial. Sin embargo, se originaron argumentos en contra de la interpretación experimental de dicho fenómeno que llevaron a polarizar su aceptación general. Nueva evidencia basada en mariposas diurnas genera nuevas perspectivas puesto que incluye el comportamiento, que puede ser apreciado durante el día. Además, la especie seleccionada es bien conocida desde el punto de vista de su historia natural. El experimento que desarrolle consiste en tres sustratos de diferente color (blanco, negro y gris) en donde se pone a prueba la preferencia de Hamadryas feronia para posarse. Se encontró una marcada tendencia a posarse sobre el blanco y el gris, chi-cuadrado (N=644), donde los machos prefirieron el blanco y las hembras el gris. El negro fue rechazado probablemente porque ofrece muy poca defensa visual al disminuir el efecto de la coloración críptica de esta especie. El habito por parte de esta mariposa de posarse selectivamente sobre sustratos de distinto color esta fijado genéticamente, los machos posiblemente prefieren blanco como una táctica para atraer hembras y las hembras prefieren gris para aumentar el efecto de su coloración críptica y así evitar ser detectadas por los depredadores.

Algunos aspectos fisiológicos de la selección sexual / Some physiological issues of the sexual selection

La atracción y el cortejo sexual integran el contexto de la selección sexual. En los humanos, complejos mecanismos psicológicos y sociales son probablemente los mayores determinantes de la atracción sexual. Si bien se postula la participación de factores de índole genética ­-que podrían explicar la importancia de los rasgos fisicos en la elección del compañero sexual (teoría de los buenos genes)-, está por otra parte comprobado que los cambios fisiológicos (espontáneos en la mujer e inducidos en los hombres) juegan un preponderante papel a los fines de la reproducción.

The attraction and courtship are inclusive parts of the sexual selection. Very important psychological and social mechanisms are possibly the main determinants of the sexual attraction in humans. The genetic participation is assumed as the explication of the preeminent importance of the physical characteristics (the good gene theory). The physiologic changes associated with the sexual selection (spontaneous in women and induced in males) play a very important role in the essence of the sexual selection: the reproductive possibility.

The choice of bromeliads as a microhabitat by Scinax argyreornatus (Anura, Hylidae) / A escolha de bromélias, como micro-habitat, por Scinax argyreornatus (Anura, Hylidae)

The association of anurans to bromeliads presents different degrees of interaction such as: eventual, obligatory and bromeligen. The frog species Scinax argyreornatus shows a regular association with these plants. The goal of this study is to characterise the degree of association between the frog S. argyreornatus to different species of bromeliads. We identified which species of bromeliad is regularly associated with S. argyreornatus and recognised which factors interfere with this association preference. We analysed the Concentration of Relative Dominance of frogs per bromeliad species. As possible criteria for frog association preference to different bromeliads species we established the analysis of leaves number, length and width, number of leaf axils, stored water in the axils, pH and relative humidity, among other organographic components. Our observations were analyzed by ANOVA followed by the Tukey test. We also evaluated the preference for association by the constancy of Bodenheimer. The correlation matrix indicated that the relative humidity is the factor responsible for the frog-bromeliads association, except for Aechmea sp.. However Aechmea sp. was the species with greater constancy of occupation followed by Quesnelia arvensis and Neoregelia johannis. According to our statistical results, Aechmea sp. and Q. arvensis are not different regarding organographic parameters, but differ from N. johannis. Our observations suggest that the bromeliads organographic structure and the relative humidity are key conditions which influence the preferences of S. argyreornatus to bromeliad species, while the other features showed no correlation.

A associação dos anuros às bromeliáceas pode apresentar diferentes graus de interação, como: bromelículas eventuais, bromelículas obrigatórios e bromelígenas. Scinax argyreornatus apresenta uma associação frequente a essas plantas. Propõe-se, neste estudo, qualificar esse grau de associação, buscando identificar qual espécie de bromélia é mais ocupada, reconhecendo os fatores que interferem nessa escolha de ocupação. Analisou-se a Concentração de Dominância Relativa dos anuros por espécie de bromélia, sendo considerados como prováveis critérios de escolha: número, largura e comprimento das folhas, número de axilas foliares, volume de água acumulado, pH e umidade relativa, entre outros componentes organográficos, que foram submetidos à ANOVA e, sempre que observadas diferenças significativas, ao teste de Tukey. Avaliou-se também a escolha de ocupação pela constância de Bodenheimer. A matriz de correlação apontou a UR% como o fator responsável pela ocorrência do animal nas bromélias, exceto para Aechmea sp.; entretanto, esta foi a planta com maior Constância de ocupação, seguida por Quesnelia arvensis e Neoregelia johannis. Segundo a ANOVA, Aechmea sp. e Q. arvensis não apresentam diferenças entre si do ponto de vista organográfico, mas diferem de N. johannis. Foi possível inferir que a estrutura organográfica da planta e a UR% são as condições que interferem na escolha de ocupação das bromélias por S. argyreornatus, enquanto as outras características não demonstraram nenhuma correlação.

Chlorpheniramine impairs functional recovery in Carassius auratus after telencephalic ablation

We determined the effect of an H1 receptor antagonist on the functional recovery of Carassius auratus submitted to telencephalic ablation. Five days after surgery the fish underwent a spatial-choice learning paradigm test. The fish, weighing 6-12 g, were divided into four groups: telencephalic ablation (A) or sham lesion (S) and saline (SAL) or chlorpheniramine (CPA, ip, 16 mg/kg). For eight consecutive days each animal was trained individually in sessions separated by 24 h (alternate days). Training trials (T1-T8) consisted of finding the food in one of the feeders, which were randomly blocked for each subject. Animals received an intraperitoneal injection of SAL or CPA 10 min after the training trials. The time spent by the animals in each group to find the food (latency) was analyzed separately at T1 and T8 by the Kruskal-Wallis test, followed by the Student Newman-Keuls test. At T1 the latencies (mean ± SEM) of the A-SAL (586.3 ± 13.6) and A-CPA (600 ± 0) groups were significantly longer than those of the S-SAL (226.14 ± 61.15) and S-CPA (356.33 ± 68.8) groups. At T8, the latencies of the A-CPA group (510.11 ± 62.2) remained higher than those of the other groups, all of which showed significantly shorter latencies (A-SAL = 301.91 ± 78.32; S-CPA = 191.58 ± 73.03; S-SAL = 90.28 ± 41) compared with T1. These results support evidence that training can lead to functional recovery of spatial-choice learning in telencephalonless fish and also that the antagonist of the H1 receptor impairs it.

A neutral cue facilitates detection of a visual target by modulating attention

Twelve rats were trained to perform a two-choice visual detection task in which a right or left light was presented and the animals were required to press the lever located under the illuminated light for a food reward. In seventy percent of the trials the target light was preceded by presentation of a neutral cue (a central light). Relevance of the neutral cue for detection of the target was analyzed by comparing behavioral indices of attention in its presence and absence. Accuracy was significantly higher in presence than in absence of the neutral cue, while mean response latencies were lower in presence than in absence of the neutral cue. These results indicate that the animals allocated attentional resources on the target detection during a high expectancy period after the onset of the neutral cue. This could facilitate target detection and improve the performance in the presence of the neutral cue.

Conhecimento de adolescentes grávidas sobre anatomia e fisiologia da reprodução / Knowledge of pregnant adolescents about reproductive anatomy and physiology in a municipality of Southern Brazil

OBJETIVOS: Verificar o conhecimento sobre alguns aspectos do aparelho genital feminino, da fisiologia da reprodução e sua associação com características sociodemográficas e "escolhas" reprodutivas em adolescentes gestantes. MÉTODOS: Realizou-se um estudo de corte transversal com 200 adolescentes primigestas, durante a primeira consulta de pré-natal no Ambulatório da Mulher de Indaiatuba, São Paulo. Foram feitas entrevistas face a face, com questionário estruturado e um modelo feminino tridimensional confeccionado artesanalmente para coleta dos dados. Os dados foram analisados utilizando-se os testes Qui-quadrado de Pearson, ou Exato de Fisher, e por regressões logísticas múltiplas, para verificar associações entre indicadores do conhecimento sobre anatomia dos órgãos genitais femininos, fisiologia dos órgãos e da reprodução com características sociodemográficas e "escolhas" reprodutivas. RESULTADOS: A maioria tinha conhecimento insatisfatório sobre anatomia (55,5 por cento), com os órgãos externos sendo identificados com maior facilidade e melhor localizados do que os internos; fisiologia dos órgãos (61 por cento); e aspectos fisiológicos da reprodução (76,5 por cento). Algumas associações significativas foram estabelecidas entre o conhecimento e a idade dos parceiros, diferença de idade do casal, manutenção do vinculo após ocorrência da gravidez, filiação religiosa e escolaridade da adolescente. Não houve associação entre os indicadores de conhecimento estudados com a utilização de método anticoncepcional na primeira relação sexual e a intenção de ter um filho naquele momento. CONCLUSÃO: Este estudo faz emergir a complexidade da relação entre o conhecimento sobre anatomia e fisiologia reprodutivas e a temática da gravidez na adolescência, evidenciando a necessidade de abordagens mais contextualizadas dos conteúdos de programas de educação sexual, quando seu foco for a redução da gravidez precoce.

OBJECTIVES: To study knowledge of some aspects of the female reproductive anatomy and physiology and their association with socio-demographic and reproductive "choices" of pregnant adolescents. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was performed with 200 first time pregnant adolescents who attended a public women's health clinic in the municipality of Indaiatuba, Sao Paulo, Brazil. During their first prenatal care visit, face-to-face interviews were conducted using a structured questionnaire and a three-dimensional handmade female model. Bivariate data analyses were performed using Person's Chi-square or Fisher Exact test. Data were also analyzed using multivariate logistic regression models to test for associations of indicators of knowledge of female reproductive anatomy, physiology of female reproductive organs and physiology of reproduction with socio-demographic characteristics and reproductive "choices". RESULTS: The majority had little knowledge of anatomy (55.5 percent), with external organs more easily identified and placed than the internal; of physiology of reproductive organs (61.0 percent), and of physiology of reproduction (76.5 percent). Associations were found between knowledge and age of partner, couple difference of age, maintenance of the relationship with partner after pregnancy, religious affiliation, and level of education. No association was found between indicators of knowledge with use of contraceptives at first intercourse and with intention of having the baby at that time. CONCLUSION: This study addressed the complexity of the relationship between knowledge of reproductive anatomy and physiology and the theme of adolescent pregnancy, and emphasized the need for more contextualized approaches of programmatic contents on sexual education, in view of the intention to reduce early pregnancy.

Chlorpheniramine impairs spatial choice learning in telencephalon-ablated fish

This work investigated the effect of the Hj receptor blockade in the forebrain of ablated Carassius auratus in a simple stimulus-response learning task using a T-maze test with positive reinforcement. The goldfish were submitted to surgery for removal of both telencephalic lobes five days before beginning the experiment. A T-shaped glass aquarium was employed, with two feeders located at the extremities of the long arm. One of the two feeders was blocked. The experimental triáis were performed in nine consecutive days. Each fish was individually placed in the short arm and confined there for thirty seconds, then it was allowed to swim through the aquarium to search for food for ten minutes (máximum period). Time to find food was analysed in seconds. Animáis were injected intraperitoneally with chlorpheniramine (CPA) at 16 mg/kg of body weight or saline after every trial, ten minutes after being placed back in the home aquarium. The results show that all the training latencies of the A-SAL group were higher than the latencies of the S-SAL group. The S-SAL group had decreased latencies from the second trial on, while the S-CPA group showed decreased latencies after the fourth trial. The A-SAL group showed reduced latencies after the fifth trial, but the A-CPA group mainteined the latencies throughout the experiment. This suggests that CPA impairs the consolidation of learning both on telencephalon ablated animáis and in sham-operated ones through its action on mesencephalic structures of the brain and/or on the cerebellum in teleost fish.

The medial septum acts through the medial preoptic area for thermoregulation and works with it for sleep regulation.

The chronic changes in sleep-wakefulness (S-W), body temperature (Tb), locomotor activity (LMA) and thermal preference were studied in male Wistar rats after the destruction of neurons in both the medial preoptic area (mPOA) and the medial septum (MS) by intracerebral injection of N-methyl-D-aspartic acid. An increase in the Tb, and a preference for higher ambient temperature (Tamb) of 30 degrees C were observed after the combined lesion of the mPOA and the MS. Similar changes were reported to occur after the lesion that was restricted to the mPOA. But these alterations were in contrast to the decrease in Tb and preference for lower Tamb, observed after the MS lesion. The thermostat of the brain would have been reset at a higher level after the combined lesion, as there was an increase in Tb, along with a preference for a higher Tamb, and an increase in LMA. There was a reduction in the frequency and the duration of the slow wave sleep (SWS) episodes, and a reduction in the frequency of the paradoxical sleep (PS) episodes after the combined lesion. The destruction of the MS neurons was probably responsible for the reduction in the frequency of SWS, whereas the loss of mPOA neurons was responsible for the decrease in the duration of SWS and frequency of PS. It can be suggested that the MS exerts its influence on thermoregulation through the mPOA. However, the MS and the mPOA seem to play independent, but complementary roles in sleep promotion.

Relevance of a neutral cue in a two-choice detection task in the rat

Relevance of a neutral cue for performance in a two-choice visuospatial detection task was examined. Nine rats were trained, 5 with short intertrial interval (ITI) and 4 with long ITI, to detect a target (lateral lights) presented after a neutral-cue (central light). The removal of the neutral-cue decreased accuracy and increased response latencies and omissions. These results demonstrate that a neutral-cue, preceding the target, is relevant for the performance, suggesting that rats are highly expectant during the neutral-cue and reallocate attentional resources during ITI. Furthermore, latencies were higher, omissions were lower and the fall of accuracy was greater for rats with long than with short ITI, which could indicate that the neutral-cue was more relevant for the former group.

A method for testing the host specificity of ectoparasites: give them the opportunity to choose

Host-choice experiments were carried out with rodent and bat ectoparasites on Ilha Grande, state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. We constructed experimental chambers that enclosed three different rodent or bat host species, and then introduced a selected set of ectoparasitic arthropods. When given the opportunity to choose among host species, the ectoparasites showed a strong tendency to select their primary hosts, and reject novel host species. These kinds of simple experiments can be valuable tools for assessing the ability of ectoparasites to locate and discern differences between host species, and make choices about which hosts to infest, and which hosts to avoid.

Effect of prenatal species-specific and music stimulation on the postnatal auditory preference of domestic chick.

Perinatal sensory experience plays an important role in the development of perceptual preferences. In the present study prenatal enrichment with sound stimulus was given to see its effect on the development of postnatal auditory preference. Auditory stimulation with either species-specific (chicken maternal and hatching calls) or music (slow and fast sitar music) sounds was provided to two separate sets of fertilized eggs from the day 10 of incubation. The postnatal auditory preference of the chicks to either species-specific or music sounds was then tested at different time periods after hatching. All the chicks, irrespective of the type of prenatal exposure, showed preference for species-specific maternal calls. Notably, the music stimulated chicks did not show preference for either slow or fast music. In both the experimental groups, the number of chicks responding to the species-specific maternal calls was significantly (P<0.001) more at 24 h and 48 h post hatch, when compared with the unstimulated control group. Comparison of the species-specific stimulated group with the music stimulated group, for auditory preference to the maternal calls, did not show any significant difference. Further, in the species-specific sound stimulated groups, there was a significant (P<0.001) increase in the number of chicks responding to maternal calls at 60 h of age with repeated testing. However, there was no effect of peer imprinting on the auditory preference of the chicks, in both the experimental groups. The results indicate that prenatal auditory experience with either species-specific or non-specific music enhances the postnatal auditory preference of chicks for the species-specific sounds.